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Cutting and Grinding Fluid Terminology
Cutting and Tool Terminology
Drilling Terminology
Grinding Terminology
Lathe Terminology
Machining and Machine Tool Terminology
Milling Terminology
Other Metal Removal Methods
Sawing Terminology
Threading Terminology
Active Oil
An oil which contains chemically active ingredients to prevent
metal-to-metal friction when the pressures become too great for
the natural film strength of the oil.
Boundary Lubrication
The state of lubrication which exists when operating conditions,
pressure, temperature or design are not favorable to the
formation of the lubricating oil wedge, or to provide a thick oil
film, also where the laws of fluid-film lubrication do not apply.
Here, at best, a condition of thin film lubrication exists as the
oil does little more than fill the irregularities on the
surfaces, with the result that intermittent metal-to-metal
contact can be expected. The best protection under conditions of
boundary lubrication is an oil rich in oiliness and of high film
strength and with extreme pressure properties.
Chemical Coolant
A cutting fluid which does not contain mineral oil; usually a
true solution in water or a fine colloidal solution.
Chlorine
A common extreme pressure (EP) additive used to promote
lubrication.
Coolant
Liquid used to cool the work and tool and to prevent rusting or
corrosion; cutting or grinding fluid.
Coupling Agent
A mutual solvent, an emulsifier.
Creaming
A concentrating of oil droplets of an emulsion near the surface
when the emulsion stands quiescent for a sufficient period of
time.
Cutting Fluid
Fluid (liquid, gas, or mist) applied to the working parts of a
tool or cutter to promote more efficient machining by acting as a
coolant and machining lubricant.
Cutting Oil
A cutting fluid used where lubrication is the prime consideration
and the cooling factor is of less importance.
Emulsifiable Oil
A straight oil or blend which contains an emulsifier or coupling
agent so it will form a stable emulsion in water.
Emulsifier
A material containing two types of molecular groups, one of which
will orient in water and the other in oil. It will, thus, tie
together two dissimilar liquids.
Emulsion
An oily mass in suspension in a watery liquid or vice versa.
EP Additive
Extreme pressure additive.
Extreme Pressure Additive
A compound which reacts with the surface of the metal (or tool)
forming thin films of metallic compounds (usually, a chloride,
sulfide, or phosphate) which have relatively low shear-strength.
Fatty Acid
Any of the series of saturated or unsaturated acids (C n H 2n O 2
) such as stearic, oleic, and palmitic acids which occur in
natural fats and natural oils.
Fatty Oils
Organic oils; the most common are lard oil and sperm oil.
Germicide
Any agent which destroys germs or microorganisms.
Halogen
The group of elements chlorine, fluorine, bromine, and iodine.
Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Lubrication where the viscosity of the lubricant keeps the
surfaces separated by a fluid film.
Inverted Emulsion
A dispersion of droplets of water in oil produced when a small
quantity of water is mixed with a relatively large quantity of
oil.
Metallic Soap
The reaction product produced when a fatty acid reacts with
metal.
Mineral Oil
Any oil of mineral origin such as petroleum.
Miscible
Capable of being mixed.
Soluble Oil
A mineral oil containing an emulsifying agent capable of mixing
readily with water to form a stable oil-in-water emulsion. Used
in metal cutting operations requiring high cooling efficiency.
See Cutting Oil.
Spray Lubrication
Describes the application of a lubricant by means of a spraying
equipment in much the same manner as paint is sprayed. Oil is
sprayed on the workpiece.
Sulfo-chlorinated Oil
Cutting oil containing sulfur and chlorine.
Sulfur
A common extreme pressure (EP) additive used to resist
metal-to-metal contact. See Boundary
Lubrication.
Surface Active Agent
Materials capable of lowering surface and interfacial tensions.
Synthetic Fluids
Products which do not contain mineral oil and usually form a true
solution in water.
Tramp Oil
Leakage into the cutting fluid system from hydraulic or
lubrication systems of machine tools.
Wettability
The relative ease with which a liquid spreads over a surface.
Wetting Agent
An additive which reduces surface and interfacial tension and,
thus, facilitates spreading of a fluid over a surface.
Back Rake Angle
The surface that formed the top (or face) of the tool has been
ground back at an angle from the nose.
Built-Up Edge (BUE)
A piece of work material which has been strain hardened and
pressure welded to the cutting edge of a tool.
Burr
A turned over edge of metal resulting from certain machining
operations.
Chatter
Vibration of tool or workpiece caused by the motion of the
cutting tool.
Chatter Marks
Surface imperfections on the work surface usually caused by
vibrations of the tool and/or workpiece.
Complete Failure
The tool is completely unable to cut.
Contour of the Cut
Is largely the impression left by the cutting tool and conforming
to the shape of the cutting edge.
Cutting Force Value
Increase of the cutting force or the power consumption by a
certain amount.
Cutting Speed
The peripheral or surface speed of the work with respect to the
tool.
Cutting Rate
The amount of material removed in a machining operation per unit
of time.
Depth of Cut
The distance between the bottom of the cut and the uncut surface
of the work measured at right angles to the machined surface of
the work.
End Cutting Edge Angle
Signifies that the surface that forms the end or front of a tool
has been ground back at an angle sloping from the nose to the
side of the shank.
Feed
The relative amount of motion of the cutting tool into the work
per revolution stroke or unit of time.
Finish
Surface quality or appearance.
Finish Failure
Occurrence of a sudden pronounced change in finish on the work
surface.
Finishing Cut
The final cuts taken to obtain the accuracy and finish.
Flank Failure
Occurrence of a certain size of worn area on the tool flank,
usually based on a certain width or wear mark on a certain volume
of metal worn away.
Front Clearance Angle
This term or end-relief signifies that the end surface of a tool
has been ground back at an angle sloping down from the nose of
the tool.
Knurling
The process of checking the surface of a piece of work by rolling
depressions into it.
Line of Cut
The line followed by the area of contact between the tool and the
material as the cutting edge moves into the material.
Machinability
A study of the relative ease or difficulty with which different
materials can be machined and the many factors which contribute
to machining.
Machined Surface
The surface left by the cutting tool.
Necking
Refers to the operation of cutting a groove of predetermined
depth in a workpiece.
Parting
Refers to the operation of cutting a workpiece in two.
Path of Consecutive Cuts
The line followed by the tool or the material as one or the other
is moved, produces a series of parallel cuts.
Peripheral Speed
The speed of any point on the surface of the work (cutter for
rotary tool).
Rake Angle
Its function is to direct and facilitate the flow of the chip
over the face of the tool and to modify and control the cutting
forces which are also affected by the shear angle.
RPM
Revolutions per minute.
Side Clearance Angle
This term or side-relief means that the surface forming the side
or flank of a tool has been ground back at an angle sloping from
the side cutting edge.
Side Cutting Angle
Signifies that the surface which forms the side of a tool has
been ground back at an angle to the side of the shank.
Side Rake
The surface that forms the top (or face) of a tool has been
ground back at an angle sloping from the side cutting edge.
Tool Failure
Occurs ordinarily in one of the following ways:
Tool Life
The life of the cutting tool between resharpenings and may be
specified in various ways:
Work Surface
Refers to the surface to be machined.
Body
Extends from the point to the shank.
Column
Supports the drill press and also the table on some machines.
Core Drilling
Core drills are 3- and 4-fluted cutters used to enlarge
previously drilled core or pierced holes.
Counter Bore
Used to enlarge a portion of a cylindrical bore hole.
Counter Sink
A cutter that makes a cone-shaped enlargement at the end of the
hole.
Deep Hole Drilling
Any hole longer than four times its diameter is considered a deep
hole.
Drilling
Operation of producing a circular hole by removing solid metal.
Drill Speed
The speed at which various metals may be cut is expressed in
terms of feet per minute (fpm) or surface foot speed (sfs).
Drill Spindle
Carries the drill or other cutting tools and revolves in a fixed position in a sleeve.
Feed/for Twist Drills
The rate at which the drill is advanced vertically into the work
per revolution of the drill.
Flutes
The helical grooves running along opposite sides of the drill.
They are shaped to help form the proper cutting edges on the
cone-shaped point and to provide a means for the escape of drill
chips from a hole when drilling.
Head
Is the part which carries the sleeve, spindle, and feed gears.
Lips
The cutting edges of the drill point extending from the dead
center to the periphery.
Multiple-Spindle Drill Press
A drill press with several spindles mounted in a single head.
Point
Refers to the entire cone-shaped cutting end.
Radial Drill Press
Constructed in such a manner that the arm carrying the spindle
head can be swiveled about the vertical column.
Reamer
A cutting tool used for perfecting holes.
Reaming
A means of finishing a previously drilled hole to exact size.
Sensitive Drill Press
A small manually operated machine for drilling small holes
whereby the operator can feel the action of the drill point as it
penetrates the work while the operator manually controls the
feeding of the spindle into the work.
Shank
The shank end of the drill fits into the holding device that
revolves the drill. The shank can be tapered or straight.
Sleeve
Does not revolve but may slide in its bearing in a direction
parallel to its vertical axis.
Spade Drilling
A flat cutter firmly clamped in a bar type holder. Like twist
drills, spade drills have two cutting edges.
Table
A flat surface supported on an arm which is adjustable up and
down the column below the drill head and is used to support or
hold the workpiece to be drilled.
Twist Drills
Are rotary-end cutting tools with two or more cutting lips and
two or more helical or straight flutes for the removal of chips
and the admission of a cutting fluid. All twist drills have three
major parts – the point, the body, and the shank.
Vertical/Upright Drill Press
Differs from the sensitive drill press in that it has power feed
on the spindle. It is capable of handling drills larger than 1/2
inch in addition to the smaller drills.
Centerless Grinder
A grinder which eliminates the use of centers by providing a bar
support under the workpiece and a supporting control wheel which
may or may not be mounted parallel to the grinding wheel.
Grinding Machine
Includes all power and manually operated machines designed with
abrasive wheels, discs, or belts for grinding metals. They may be
floor mounted or mounted on fixtures for special grinding
operations such as for grinding crankshafts, also internal
grinders for grinding cylinders, etc.
Grinding Wheel
An abrasive bonded in the form of a wheel or disc.
Surface Grinding
Done to produce flat surfaces on workpieces held in contact with
a grinding wheel.
Automatic Screw Machines
Automatic turret lathes capable of mass producing precision
turned and formed parts of endless variety. All automatic screw
machines fall into one of three general classes single spindle,
multiple spindle or Swiss-type machines.
Bed
The bed is the foundation on which the lathe is built.
Bar Parts
These workpieces are produced from a length of solid bar or tube
stock.
Carriage
The carriage supports the cross slide tool post and the cutting
tool. It runs lengthwise along the bed between the headstock and
the tailstock. The carriage is made up of two major parts the
saddle, which straddles the lathe bed and rests on carefully
machined ways and the apron, attached to the front of the saddle.
Chucking Parts
Workpieces turned from individual pieces of metal. These
workpieces may start out as rough casting of forgings or as
pre-cut lengths of bar stock called slugs.
Chucks
A chuck is attached to the headstock's spindle of the lathe and
grips and rotates the workpieces.
3-Jaw Universal Chuck
Has 3 jaws that move simultaneously at equal distance towards or
away from the center by turning a single chuck key.
4-Jaw Independent Chuck
Has 4 jaws, each of which can be adjusted independently.
Collet/Chucks
A draw-in collet chuck has a hollow, split and tapered head which
can be adjusted to grip small diameter workpieces and bar stock.
Crosslide
Is mounted on the saddle and supports the compound rest.
Engine Lathe
A machine tool to change the size, shape or finish of revolving
workpiece by one cut or a series of cuts into the workpiece with
an adjustable cutting tool.
Engine Lathe Classifications:
Face-Plate
If a workpiece cannot be machined in a lathe chuck of the 3- or
4-jaw type, it can be fastened to a face-plate with bolts, studs
or clamps.
Feed (Turning)
The amount of horizontal movement of the tool per revolution of
the workpiece.
Follow Rest
Used to support the workpiece from behind and above.
Force (Lathes)
Three basic forces which act upon the cutting tool are identified
as longitudinal feed force, radial force, and tangential force.
Longitudinal Feed Force
Is parallel to the axis of turning and in the direction of the
feed movement.
Radial Force
Is radial from the turned surface in the direction of the depth
movement.
Tangential Force
Is in the direction of the turned surface and at a right angle to
the axis of the turning in the direction of the cutting speed.
Gibs
May be either tapered or flat metal bars for taking up wear
between bearing surfaces, such as the dove-tailed surfaces of the
crosslide, compound rest or carriage. Gibs are provided with
thrust screws by means of which the necessary adjustments are
made.
Headstock
Is mounted at the left hand end of the machine. It is the unit
which turns the workpiece.
Lathe Centers
Support the workpiece between the headstock and the tailstock.
Lathe Dog
Used to drive long workpieces which cannot be chucked.
Live Center
The center used in the headstock spindle is called the live
center. The dead center is located in the tailstock spindle.
Mandrel
Cylindrical work-holding devices which have a slight taper over
their entire length.
Quick-Change Gear Box
The unit through which the lead screw and feed shaft are rotated
to move the carriage along the bed ways at a desired rate of
travel.
Rocker Tool Post
Is standard equipment for all lathes. It clamps to the compound
T-slot and holds one tool at a time.
Shoulder Turning
Work that is turned to more than one outside diameter with steps
from one side to another is said to be shouldered.
Spindle/Spindle Nose
The hollow spindle is built into the headstock and the nose of
the spindle projects out from the head stock housing. A face
plate, drive plate or chuck can be screwed onto these threads to
support and rotate the workpiece.
Steady Rest
Used to support long cylindrical pieces.
Tailstock
Is movable on the bed ways. It contains a taper-bored spindle in
which the dead centers for turning work are inserted.
Tool Post/Tool Supports
The tool post assembly is mounted on a compound rest and is used
to hold the cutting tool.
Turret Lathes
A metal turning machine having two multiple-tool holders; a
hexagon turret and square turret. Cutting tools to perform
different operations are mounted in the faces or stations of
these turrets and are rotated and/or indexed to bring the various
cutting tools against a rotating workpiece in a predetermined
sequence.
Left Hand (Prefix)
Is applied to tools which have their side cutting edges on the
right and move to the right.
Machine Tool
A power-driven machine, not portable by hand, used for the
purposes of removing material in the form of chips, and to press,
forge, emboss, bend or shear metal.
Machinability
The relative difficulty of a machining operation with regard to
tool life, surface finish and power consumption.
Numerical Control (N/C)
An automated method used to operate generaI purpose machines from
stored instructions. The method can be used with or without a
computer.
Right Hand (Prefix)
Is applied to tools which have their side cutting edges on the
left and move to the left.
End Milling
The operation of machining flat surfaces either horizontal,
vertical, or at an angle using an end mill as a cutter.
Feed
Usually measured in inches per minute. It is the product of feed
per tooth times revolutions per minute times the number of teeth
in the cutter.
Face Milling
The milled surface in this method results from the combined
action of cutting edges located on the face or end of the cutting
tools.
Form Milling
The machining of irregular contours by using form cutters.
Gang Milling
When more than two cutters are mounted on the arbor to machine
surfaces of a workpiece.
Knee and Column Milling Machine
This is the standard milling machine and its name is derived from
the design of the two major elements (1) the column shaped main
frame and (2) the knee shaped projection from the column which
supports the saddle and the work table. There are three basic
styles of knee and column milling machines (1) plain, (2)
universal and (3) vertical.
Manufacturing Milling Machine (Bed-type)
The manufacturing or bed-type milling machine is a production
machine. The spindle supported in bearings is located in an
adjustable head that can be raised or lowered. The table,
however, cannot be raised or lowered.
Milling
The process of producing machined surfaces by progressively
removing a predetermined amount of material from the work piece
which is fed to a rotating milling cutter. Two methods of milling
are Peripheral milling and Face milling.
Peripheral/Cutting Surface Speed
Refers to revolutions per minute times cutter circumference in
feet in which speed is measured in peripheral feet per minute.
Peripheral Milling
The milled surface in this method is produced by cutting teeth
located on the periphery (outer edge) of the cutter body.
Plain/Slab Milling
Milling flat horizontal surfaces is sometimes called plain
milling or surface milling. Plain milling is the machining of
plain flat horizontal surfaces with cylindrical mills whose links
are usually much greater than their diameters.
Side Milling
The operation of machining a vertical surface on the side of a
workpiece using a side milling cutter.
Slitting and Cutting Off
Metal slitting saws are used for milling narrow slots and for
cutting off stock.
Special Type Milling Machines
To obtain maximum efficiency and economy in the mass production
of large unusual workpieces, specially designed milling machines
are often required.
Universal Milling Machine
Designed for a wide range of milling operations. The angle
between spindle and plane of motion of work table is adjustable.
Index heads and other special devices may be attached.
Vertical Milling Machine
As the name indicates, the spindle is vertical. This machine is
used mostly for top facing work. Usually the tool moves up and
down in relation to the workpiece which can be fed vertically or
horizontally from either of two directions.
Arc Cutting
A group of cutting processes, which cut by melting away the metal
with the heat of an electric arc between an electrode and the
base metal. Carbon-arc cutting, metal-arc cutting and oxy-arc
cutting are examples of this process.
Electro-chemical Machining (ECM)
Essentially an electrolysis process where electrochemical
reaction dissolves metal from a workpiece into an electrolyte
solution.
Electro-discharge Machining (EDM)
This process removes metal through the action of an electrical
discharge of very short duration and high current density between
the electrode and the work.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)
Uses high frequency mechanical vibration transmitted through a
shaped tool to an abrasive grit to remove material.
Band Saw
Essentially a flexible saw blade driven in a continuous loop
around two wheels providing continuous cutting action.
Contour Sawing
Sawing to a layout line of regular radius or irregular contour.
The term is often used to describe any band machining operation
more complicated than a simple straight line cut.
Stack Sawing
Consists of cutting multiple pieces of sheet stock at a time.
Crest
The crest is the top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Depth of Thread
The depth of a thread is the distance from the top or crest of
the thread to the root measured vertically.
Fit
Refers to the allowance, looseness or tightness between the
mating parts when they are fastened together. Lead The lead of a
thread is the distance a screw will advance in one complete
revolution.
Major Diameter
The major or outside (OD) of an external thread is the diameter
of the place on which the thread is cut. It is the largest
diameter of the thread.
Minor Diameter
The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of the thread of the
screw. It is sometimes called the root diameter (rd) and can be
found by subtracting twice the depth of the thread from the major
diameter.
Number of Threads Per Inch
The number of threads per inch (N) can be counted by placing a
rule against the threaded part and counting the threads in one
inch. The first thread is not counted since, in reality, not the
crests but the spaces between the crests are what is being
counted. A second method is to use a screwpitch gauge. This
method is more suitable for checking the finer pitches of screw
threads.
Pitch
The pitch (P) of a thread is the distance from a point on a screw
thread to a corresponding point on the next thread, measured
parallel to the work axis.
Threading
Cutting a helical groove of a definite shape or angle with a
uniform advance for each revolution on the surface of a round
piece of material or in a cylindrical hole.
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